Color and its use

The 12-part colour wheel is based on the three primary colours (red, yellow and blue) placed evenly around a circle. 
Between the three primaries are the secondary colours (green, orange and violet), which are mixtures of the two primaries they sit between.
The tertiary colours fall between each primary and secondary. Between yellow and orange, for example, is yellow orange; between blue and violet is blue violet and so on.
All the colours around the outside of the colour wheel are called saturated colours. They contain no black, no white and none of their complimentary or opposite colour.
Compound colours are colours containing a mixture of the three primaries. All the browns, khakis and earth colours are compound colours.
Complimentary colours are those opposite each other in the colour wheel, such as red/ green, blue/ orange and yellow/ violet. Put these colours together and your eyes with almost sting, as these colours are equal in colour value.
A colour triad is a colour taken from 3 sides of the wheel. If this is blue/ yellow/ red you will create a circus, child's room effect, fun, bright and cheerful.
Pick only colours from one part of the colour wheel such as the blues/ purples/ greens you'll get dark effects, watery, night, mystical, relaxing. Choose red/ orange/ yellow and show heat, light, zing, wow factor and stimulation.
Choose two colours side by side from the wheel and one from opposite and you'll get contrast and harmony working well together and the opposite colour balances the other two.

Primary Colours

For rooms that come off feeling strong and solid, a scheme of primary colours -- red, blue, and yellow -- is an ideal choice. Each is a pure colour that can't be created by mixing other hues. Use them in pairs or combine all three; they work equally in country, traditional, and modern rooms.

Secondary Colours

Mixing two primary colours in equal amounts creates a secondary colour --green, orange, and purple. Like all colours, each secondary hue can be tinted with white or shaded with black for variations. If you can't envision a bold orange and green room, think about pairing up their paler tints of peach and sage. The primary and secondary colours illustrate that you can make a compatible triadic scheme by choosing any three colours equidistant on the wheel.

Tertiary Colours

These colours are an equal mix of a primary and its closest secondary colour: blue-green, yellow-green, red-orange, red-purple, and blue-purple. These colours can be combined to give a sophisticated look.

COLOUR HARMONY

Colour is a very potent feature in interior design because it evokes almost immediate response from the eye and can produce both physical and psychological reaction.  Designers can work wonders with colour and colour combinations if they have a good knowledge of colour and its effects. 

A good decorator always combines both value and practicality to evolve a scheme, which will work to the best advantage of the interiors.  Standard colour harmonies are divided into two main groups:

1. Similar or Related Harmonies
2. Contrasting or Complimentary Harmony

SIMILAR OR RELATED HARMONIES:

Selecting colours that are close to each other on the colour wheel produces related harmony. This includes two types of schemes - monochromatic and analogous schemes.

Monochromatic harmony indicates the selection of one colour or hue.  Different values must contrast in a single colour harmony.  This scheme is quite safe, effective, and peaceful in small areas. However, tends to get tiresome and monotonous, if carried out in an entire room.  Additional interest may be created by providing contrasts and combining textures through various surfaces.

Analogous scheme is produced by a combination of adjacent hues that have one hue in common.  The analogous are a combination of primary or secondary colours with two intermediate colours on either side of it.  This scheme is quite restful and shows greater varieties.

CONTRASTING OR COMPLIMENTARY HARMONY:

Combining colours that are opposite to each other and far away on the colour wheel produces complimentary harmony. They should differ in value and intensity. 

This group includes different types:

A.       Complimentary harmony

B.       Double complimentary harmony

C.       Split complimentary harmony

D.       Triad harmony

A.    Complimentary Harmony:

This is obtained by using colours lying opposite each other on the colour wheel e.g. blue and orange with yellow and violet etc.  This type of harmony provides a richer effect of colour than related harmony.  It can be successfully used for rooms, window displays and outdoors.  It should have strong colour intensity.

B.    Double Complimentary Harmony:

In this scheme, two directly adjacent colours and their complimentary colours are used together for a double complimentary harmony e.g. yellow and yellow green with red and red violet.  In using this scheme, the outstanding view should contain the largest amount of colours, that is, the dullest of all the colours.  The next may be a little bright but should be partially neutralised.  The fourth colour, which is used in the least quantity, should have the brightest intensity.

C.    Split Complimentary Harmony:

It is the combination of primary or intermediate colours on either side of the colour wheel; compliment yellow with red violet and blue violet, blue with red orange and yellow orange, red with blue green and yellow green etc.  A true split complimentary scheme is a harmony of similar colours with a note of contrasting colours. The amount of different values and intensities should be adjusted to prevent a shocking effect.

D.    Triad Harmony:

This is a combination of any three colours that form on equilateral triangle on the colour wheel.  It requires careful treatment and can provide the richest and most interesting harmony.  But if not carefully planned, it can have a very irritating effect e.g. red yellow blue orange, violet & green and red violet blue green and yellow orange.

ACCENTED NEUTRAL HARMONY:

It is a harmony in which the largest area of the room will be neutralised with a smaller area in a brighter colour.

FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATION IN COLOUR HARMONY

The function of the place should be manifested through the colour harmony.  The maintenance availability and cost must be considered.  Light colours are soiled easily and may prove to be more expensive in terms of time and money.  In private areas, it is important to create a personalised colour atmosphere.  In a room shared by many groups, preference should prevail, e.g. restaurants, lobby and other public places. Sub divide a room into the following areas of colour distribution - dominant area (walls, floor and ceilings) medium area (draperies, upholstery, furniture and bed spreads), small furniture (cushions, pillows and table cloths), accent areas (accessories, paintings, lamp shades etc.)

According to the law of chromatic distribution, the largest area should be covered with a neutralised colour.  As the area reduces in size, chromatic intensity may be proportionally increased.

Any two hues may be used if they are at the proper degree of neutralisation.  They should preferably contrast in their values, e.g. like walls and dark floor where the draperies and upholstery are of an intermediate value.

Contrast creates interest; neutral colours are formal while brighter values are more informal.  A neutralised colour appears more neutral in small areas than in larger areas.

EMOTIONAL IMPACT OF COLOUR:

How Colour Affects Mood

Relying strictly on the colour wheel to make decorating decisions leaves an important factor out of the equation: the moods that colours can create. The colours you live with really do influence your emotions. Some palates lighten and brighten your mood while others pacify or purify. We respond to colour with our hearts, not just our heads, so it's important to choose wisely. Understand that colours behave in three basic ways -- active, passive, and neutral -- and you can easily match every room's colours to your personal desires and taste and to the room's purpose.

Active Colours

On the warm side of the colour wheel, active colours include yellow, orange, and red. These advancing, extroverted hues stand out to greet and sometimes dominate. They inspire conversation and an upbeat attitude. Red, the most intense, pumps the adrenaline like no other hue. Small doses of the fire-engine hue wake up an entry or turn up the heat on a hearthside den. Golden or lemony yellows -- good for home offices and kitchens -- unleash creative juices.

Passive Colours

The cool colours -- blue, green, and purple -- will pacify, staying quietly in the background to calm and restore depleted spirits. They're ideal for bedrooms or private retreats, but if yours is a cold climate, you may want to work in some sunny accents for warmth and contrast.

Neutral Colours

Neutralizers are the "uncolors": browns, beiges, greys, whites, and taupe. They neither activate nor pacify but combine and cooperate, bridging together different rooms and colours. They're good transitions on woodwork, trim, hallways, and functional spaces like kitchens and baths, but even living rooms can benefit. Darker neutrals tone down other colours; crisp white intensifies them.

Colour Language

Curious about how colour influences mood? Here are a few examples:

Pink: soothes, acquiesces; promotes affability and affection.

Yellow: expands, cheers; increases energy. It is warm but not over bearing.  Cream and light tans are suitable background colours.

White: purifies, energizes, unifies; in combination, enlivens all other colours.

Black: disciplines, authorizes, strengthens; encourages independence.

Orange: cheers, commands; stimulates appetites, conversation, and charity. Beige and tan are favoured as background colours.

Red: empowers, stimulates, dramatizes, competes; symbolizes passion. It is the strongest of colours and is associated with danger.  When reduced to a tint of pink it losses its intensity and becomes milder and delicate.  As a shade, red may give a warm brown.

Green: balances, normalizes, refreshes; encourages emotional growth. It is associated with nature, health and well-being.   It provides dignity and solidity.

Purple: comforts, spiritualises; creates mystery and draws out intuition.

Blue: relaxes, refreshes, cools; produces tranquil feelings and peaceful moods. It is associated with simplicity, purity, truth and meditation.  It stimulates intellectual activity but in the extreme, it could lead to depression. 

Violet: It is the colour of tension and ambiguity. It represents sensitivity, subtlety and has lavender in playful and magical.  Deep violet should be used with caution.

A combination of colours from the three families i.e. warm, cool and neutral in a correct balance will provide attractive and comfortable interiors.  Colours may also have an advancing or receding effect.   Warm colours tend to appear closer than their actual distance while cool colours tend to have a receding effect. Spaces can be made to seem larger or smaller through choice of colours and shape.  A long narrow space can be made to seem less long and less narrow through the use of warm colours on either ends and cool colours on the sides. A low ceiling will seem less oppressive in light colours where as a high ceiling will appear lower in dark tones.

FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF COLOURS

Colours selection is influenced by climate, orientation activity and preference. In hotels, entrances, lobbies and front desk areas invite the use of strong colours to make a positive first impression.  Lobbies and lounges can have warm colours to support comfort but cooler tones in warm climate.  All the schemes should be generally agreeable to the guest.  Corridors leading to guest room should be given a lively colour treatment.  In bedrooms, intense colour must be avoided on ceilings and large wall areas.  Restaurants may fail by using insensitivity to colour since appetite is influenced by light and colour.  Black, grey, blue and violet should be avoided.

           

Quick and Easy Stain Removal

Quick and cautious stain removal keeps clothes in wearable condition for a longer time and thus helps reduce clothing costs. This handout explains how to remove many stains from washable fabrics using easily available laundry supplies.

‘Clothing Care’ and ‘Fibre Content’ Labels

You know if a fabric is washable by reading the care label. If the label has warnings such as "do not use chlorine bleach," then you cannot safely use liquid chlorine bleach in stain removal.

Clothing manufacturers are required to specify the recommended care procedure on a "permanent care label." These labels often appear at the neckline of garments, but sometimes they are in a side seam. These labels tell if the manufacturer recommends home laundering or dry-cleaning for routine care of the clothing. A recommendation for dry-cleaning may relate to the component parts of the garment such as interfacings and trim, rather than to the basic fibre content of the garment. Tailored clothes of wool are often "dry-clean only" while wool sweaters are often "hand washable."

Hangtags or other labels on clothing tell the fibre content. If you understand fibre characteristics, this information can help you decide about the best stain removal procedure. For example, wool or silk can be severely damaged by liquid chlorine bleach, so this bleach should be avoided. Hang tags may also tell about fibre finishes such as soil release or durable press that are not visible on clothing but can make stain removal easier or more difficult. For example, oily stains bond more firmly with durable press fabrics than with untreated fabrics, making removal more difficult.

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Note about Modern Fabrics

Synthetic fibres such as acrylic, nylon, olefin, polyester, and blends of these fibres or cottons with permanent-press finishes are tough and durable, but have a special attraction for oil stains. Oil stains should be removed promptly. If oil stains get tumble dried or ironed into fabrics containing these fibres or finishes, removal may be extremely difficult, if not impossible. These oil stains are most visible on plain- medium colours such as light blue or khaki. On the other hand, if treated quickly, oil stains usually can be easily removed.

Synthetic fabrics are also heat sensitive. These fabrics shrink and melt in high temperatures. They can get more-or-less "permanent" wrinkles in the spin-cycle of a washing machine set for a hot-water wash, or from an over-crowded dryer that has run too long. Steam pressing can sometimes remove heat-set wrinkles, but the melting temperature of the fibres is so close to the temperature needed to iron out wrinkles that pressing is tedious and must be done carefully to avoid melting and creating holes. The restored garment may fit differently because of the heat shrinkage.

It is easy to prevent wrinkling in washable blends and permanent press clothes:

• Avoid overloading the washer; clothes should move freely.
• Be sure the washer is set for "warm" not "hot" water temperature or for the "permanent press" cycle.
• Remove from dryer at end of cycle; do not over dry.
• Hang on hanger; temporary wrinkles generally "relax" or fall out in a few hours.

Fabrics containing -vinyl or natural rubber will be damaged by most oil solvents. Oil solvents tend to remove the plasticizer in vinyl film fabrics, making them stiff.

Olefins may be damaged by perchloroethylene solvent, but are resistant to trichloroethylene and fluorocarbon dry-cleaning solvents.

Acetate fabrics will dissolve in fingernail polish remover (acetone). Triacetate and modacrylic fabrics can be damaged by acetone or paint thinners.

Silk, wool, and other hair fibres, such as camel or cashmere, will dissolve in fresh liquid chlorine bleach. Dilute solutions of liquid chlorine bleach will cause permanent yellowing and stiffening of wool fibres and usually cause weakening and colour loss in silk.

Cellulosic fibres, such as cotton, linen, rayon, and ramie, will be weakened by repeated exposure to dilute solutions of liquid chlorine bleach, but bleaches can be safely used on cellulosic fibres for purposes of stain removal. Undiluted bleach can weaken fabrics so that they tear or wear out more quickly.

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Garments with Contrasting Colours or Trim

Many garments are designed with dark fabrics and white trim or white fabrics and bright colored trim such as red piping. When these fabrics are labelled washable, people often complain that the colours have "run." The white shirt becomes streaked with pink from the red trim.

Sometimes this problem can be resolved by rewashing the garment in a heavy-duty detergent with warm or hot water. The excess dye that was not permanently in the trim is not likely to be very firmly deposited in its new location either, and sometimes a simple repeat washing will rinse it away. Sometimes bleaching will help, but often the bleach will change the colour of the trim and further change the appearance of the garment.

Since there are no regulations about fastness labelling, there is little that consumers can do when they have problems with fastness except complain to the manufacturer or retailer who sold the goods. As long as care labelling procedures have been carefully followed, there is very little chance for the laundering process to go wrong.

 

 

Removing Stains from Washable Fabrics: General Procedures

The following general procedures apply to nearly all stains. Fresh stains are much easier to remove than old ones, so take care of stains promptly.

1. Blot up any excess liquid with a clean white cloth, paper, or other towels. Remove excess solids by gentle scraping or chipping with a dull knife or metal spatula. With some solids such as heavy amounts of surface mud removal may be easier after the stain has dried. Excess can be brushed off before the clothing is submerged for washing.
2. Avoid rubbing the stained area with a linty terry towel or a dark-colored cloth. You may complicate the problem.
3. Never rub a fresh stain with bar soap. Soap sets many stains.
4. Decide if the fabric is washable or dry cleanable.
5. Do not try to treat suede, leather, or fur until or unless you are professionally capable of doing so.
6. Avoid using hot water on stains of unknown origin. Hot water can set protein stains such as milk, egg, or blood.
7. Test stain removal agents on a seam or hidden area of the garment to be sure it does not affect the colour or finish of the fabric before starting on the stain.
8. Avoid excessive rubbing unless fabric is tough and durable. Rubbing can spread the stain and damage the fibre, finish, or colour.
9. Do not iron or press stained fabrics. Heat will set most stains.
10. Check laundry for stains before washing. Many stains need pre-treatment.
11. Inspect wet laundry before drying to be sure stain has been removed. If a stain is still evident, do not tumble dry. The heat of drying will tend to make the stain more permanent.
12. Wash heavily soiled items separately. During laundering, soil is broken into smaller particles and can be re-deposited on cleaner clothing if insufficient detergent is used, water temperature is too low, and washing time too long, or washer is overloaded with too many clothes.

Spot Treatment Technique (Sponging) for Apparel Fabrics

A spot treatment confines the stain to a small area and keeps it from spreading. This method is sometimes called "sponging." For spot treatment you need a supply of absorbent material such as, clean rags or paper towels, and a dry-cleaning solvent, spot remover, or aerosol pre-treatment spray.

Follow these steps:

1. Pad the working surface with clean rags or paper towels that can be stained as you work.
2. Place the stained area or spot on the garment facedown over the padded surface.
3. Dampen a small white cloth with solvent.
4. Use the dampened cloth to pat the stain from the wrong side. Feather the edges of the stain working from the outside toward the centre to keep the stained area from getting larger.
5. As the stain transfers to the absorbent material beneath, move it to a different place on the absorbent material so the stain has a clean place to exit into.
6. Repeat this procedure until all traces of stain are gone. Launder to remove any ring that might be left by the solvent.

Chemical Solvents and Supplies

Bleaches

• Hydrogen peroxide
• Powdered all-fabric bleaches (sodium perborate)
• Liquid all-fabric bleaches
• Liquid chlorine bleach

Liquid chlorine bleaches have a limited shelf life. If the bleach is more than six months old and has no effect on stains, it may need to be replaced with fresh bleach.

To test for colourfastness to liquid chlorine bleaches, mix one tablespoon of bleach with 1/4 cup of water. Use an eyedropper to put a drop of this solution on a hidden seam or pocket edge inside the garment. Let it stand two minutes, then blot dry. If there is no colour change it is safe to use the product. Powdered bleach packages have directions for doing colourfastness tests.

Pre-treatment products

• Aerosol sprays-petroleum-based solvent
• Pump-type sprays-- detergent based

Absorbent materials

• Clean white cloths
• Paper towels (white)
• Sponges (white or neutral colored)

• Caution: Colored sponges or paper towels can bleed dyes onto fabrics, making dye stains that may be difficult to remove.

 

Odour-reducing agents

• Activated charcoal
• Calcium carbonate
• Soda

Stain Removal Chemicals

Common name	Chemical
Alcohol (rubbing)	Isopropyl
Ammonia	Ammonium hydroxide
Colour remover	Sodium hydrosulphite
Commercial stain removers*	Isopropyl alcohol or other unspecified ingredients
Dry-cleaning fluid or petroleum-based pre-treatment solvent	Perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene petroleum distillates
Enzyme pre-soak products**	Amylase, protease, lipase
Lemon juice and salt	Citric acid and sodium chloride
Nail polish remover	Acetone
Rust removers***	Hydrofluoric acid, oxalic acid
Photo supply acid fixer	Sodium thiosulfate
Turpentine	Terpene
White vinegar	Acetic acid

* Limited testing on these products has shown them to be less effective than advertised.

**These must be used at body temperature for enzyme action to occur. Chlorine bleach and hot water inactivate enzymes.

***Do not use these products with chlorine or oxygen type bleaches.

Follow These Safety Precautions

Here are some rules to keep in mind regarding their use:

• Read all label directions and warnings. Store chemicals in their original containers so label directions are available in case of an accident.
• Use all chemicals and commercial stain removal product according to label recommendations.
• Avoid getting the chemicals on your skin. Some are easily absorbed.
• Use dry-cleaning solvents and other chemicals in a well-ventilated room. Toxic fumes can cause illness.
• Do not use solvents near an open flame or electrical outlet.
• Seal containers so that fumes can't escape.
• Never mix stain removal materials together (bleach and ammonia together form toxic fumes).

Classification of Stains

The system used here in classifying stains for removal from washable fabrics is not the only one that has been used. The purpose here is to describe at least one method that should give good results using readily available products or supplies if used correctly.

This stain classification system starts with stains that require similar treatment and are easiest to remove if treated promptly and correctly. Stains that require two-step or special treatment are listed last.

Protein Stains

Soak in cold water and then launder.

• Baby food; Milk; Baby formula; Mucous; Blood; Cheese sauce; Mud; Cream; Pudding; Egg; Urine; Faeces; Vomit; Gelatine; White glue; Ice cream

Fresh protein stains can be removed by soaking and agitating in cold water before washing. These stains contain other ingredients besides protein, but it needs treatment first. If hot water is used first, it cooks the protein, causing coagulation between the fibres in the yarns of the fabric, making the stains more difficult to remove. If protein stains are dried or old, scrape or brush off crusted matter (if any), then soak in cold water using a detergent or an ‘enzyme pre-soak’ product.

After treating the stain, launder in warm (not hot) water, rinse, and inspect. If stain remains, soak an additional half-hour, and then rewash. Bleach may be necessary if the stain was colored, such as baby food beets, strawberry gelatine, or ice cream.

Tannin Stains

Do not use soap (either bar or flake). Use detergents.

• Alcoholic beverages; Beer; Berries (cranberries, raspberries, strawberries); Coffee; Cologne; Felt-tip water colour pen or washable ink; Fruit juice (apple, grape, orange); Soft drinks; Tea; Tomato juice

Fresh tannin stains are usually removed by detergent (not soap) washing in hot water (as safe for fabric) during laundering without any treatment. Use of soap (bar soap, soap flakes, or detergents containing natural soap) will make tannin stain permanent or at least more difficult to remove. Be sure to check the ingredients list of your detergent for soap. More brands now include it for economic reasons. Old tannin stains may need bleaching for more complete removal.

Oil-based Stains

Use heavy-duty detergent with hot water.

• Automotive oil; Hair oil; Bacon fat; Hand lotion; Butter/margarine; Lard; Car door grease; Mayonnaise; Collar/ cuff greasy rings; Salad dressing; Cooking fats and oils; Suntan oil or lotion; Face creams

Oil stains can be removed by pre-treatment with a heavy-duty liquid detergent; an aerosol petroleum-based solvent pre-treatment spray, or a pump-type detergent-based pre-treatment spray. If these products are unavailable, you can use a powdered detergent that is mixed with water to make a runny paste and apply that to the stain.

The heavy-duty liquid detergents or aerosol sprays are more convenient and effective. Work the full-strength heavy-duty liquid detergent into the stain or spray with the pre-treatment product, then wash the garment using hot water (if safe for fabric), the recommended amount of detergent for a regular laundry load, rinse, and inspect before drying. Repeat this treatment if removal is incomplete the first time.

Dye Stains

Use a detergent wash and bleach as safe, for fabric.

• Cherry, blueberry; Colour bleeding in wash (dye transfer); Felt-tip pen (permanent ink-may not come out); Grass; India ink; Mercurochrome; Mustard; Tempera paint

Dye stains are very difficult to remove. First, pre-treat the stain with a heavy-duty liquid detergent, then rinse thoroughly. Soak the stained garment in a dilute solution of all-fabric powdered bleach.

If the stain persists, and the garment is white or colourfast, soak in a dilute solution of liquid chlorine bleach and water. Damage caused to colored garments by bleaching is irreversible.

To decide if a fabric can be bleached safely, use the test described previously. If the stain is not removed in fifteen minutes, it cannot be removed by bleaching and further bleaching will only weaken the fabric.

Caution: Since bleaches can alter the colour of a fabric as well as the stain, bleach the whole garment and do not try to bleach just a spot.

Combination Stains

Two step treatment: (1) Remove oily/ waxy portion, (2) Remove dye portion using bleach as safe for fabric.

Combination stains contain a variety of ingredients, but these stains usually have an oily/ waxy component and a dye or pigment component. Use the procedures recommended for removing oil stains first.

Step 1: Depends on whether stain is in Group A or B as follows:

Group A. Spray or sponge with dry-cleaning solvent (perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene) then rub with heavy-duty liquid detergent before washing.

• Ball-point ink; Candle wax; Carbon paper; Carbon typewriter ribbon; Crayon; Eye make-up (mascara, pencil, liner, shadow); Floor wax; Furniture polish; Lipstick; Livestock paint; Pine resin; Shoe polish; Tar

Group B. Rub heavy-duty liquid detergent into stain before washing.

• Barbecue sauce; Calamine lotion; Catsup or tomato sauce; Cocoa or chocolate; Face make-up (powder, rouge, foundation); Gravy; Hair spray

Step 2: Remove dye stains. Start with an all-fabric bleach because it is less damaging to colours and fabrics. Use liquid chlorine bleaches for tough dye stains, if fabrics are colourfast to bleach.

What to do if you don't know what the stain is:

If you don't know what the stain is, its odour, location, and colour may give you a clue. Old oil stains may smell rancid, but appear dry. Food stains are often on the front of garments; perspiration stains around collars and underarms; black grease is often on pants or skirts at car-door latch levels.

Stain colour may be a misleading clue. For example, rust-colored stains may be coffee, tea, old lemonade stains (caramelised sugar), cosmetics containing benzoil peroxide (which can bleach many colours to look rusty), felt marker, crayon, aged baby formula, or a number of other things. If a heavy waxy or gummy residue is present, you may be dealing with a stain that will respond best to spot treatment with a dry-cleaning fluid.

Since the appropriate removal method varies with the stain, start by using the least destructive stain removal methods first. If the whole garment can be submerged, start by soaking the garment in cold water (as for protein stains). If not, use warm water and spot treatment technique. Next, use liquid detergent and lukewarm or hot water, rinse and let air dry (as for oil stains). If you suspect the stain is iron rust, treat with rust remover before bleach. If stain persists, use a pre-treatment spray or solvent (as for combination stain) and all-fabric bleach. If the all-fabric bleach is ineffective on the stain and the garment is colourfast or white, finally try a dilute solution of liquid chlorine bleach.

Stains Needing Unique Treatment Methods

Chewing gum: Apply ice to harden gum. Crack or scrape off excess. Spray with pre-treatment aerosol product. Rub with heavy-duty liquid detergent. Rinse with hot water. Repeat if necessary and then launder.

Deodorants: Apply liquid detergent, wash in warm water. Build-up of aluminium or zinc salts may be impossible to remove.

Finger nail polish: Do not use nail polish remover (or acetone) on acetate, triacetate, or modacrylic fabrics, as they will dissolve. Take these fabrics to professional drycleaners and identify the stain. For other fabrics, use nail polish remover, acetone and spot treatment method.

Iodine: Iodine is quickly removed with sodium thiosulfate, which is sold in photo supply stores as "acid fixer." If the photo supply fixer solution contains other chemicals in addition to sodium thiosulfate, it should not be used. Iodine may also be removed by some commercial stain removers.

Lead pencil: Use art gum eraser to lift off excess; avoid hard rubbing. For delicate fabrics use spot treatment methods. For most durable, washable fabrics, spray with pre-treatment aerosol product. Rub in heavy-duty liquid detergent. Rinse in warm water. Launder.

Mildew: Mildew is a growing organism that must have warmth, darkness, and moisture to survive. Mildew eats cellulosic fibres, causing permanent damage and weakening of fibres and fabrics. To remove mildew: Shake or brush item outdoors. Pre treat darkest stains with heavy-duty liquid detergent. Launder in hot water with a heavy-duty detergent. Bleach as safe for fabric.

Odour: Most odours are removed by laundering. For persistent odour problems, place calcium carbonate crystals, activated charcoal, or soda in an open container and store with clothes in closet or sprinkle soda directly on fabric and let stand; then shake or vacuum.

Paint-latex: Treat while wet. Soak in cold water; wash in cool water with heavy-duty detergent. After paint has dried for six to eight hours, removal is very difficult. Treat as combination stain. Wash in hot water, rinse. Repeat treatment.

Paint-oil-based: Treat while wet. Use thinner recommended for paint. Use spot treatment technique and thinner on spots until paint is softened and can be flushed away in heavy-duty detergent wash. Usually turpentine or alcohol will work as solvents.

Perspiration: Apply liquid detergent or soak in warm water with pre-soak product fifteen to thirty minutes. Launder.

Pesticide: If full-strength liquid concentrate spills on clothes, handle only with rubber gloves. Discard clothing immediately. Laundering does not remove concentrate to a safe level for reuse of clothing. Launder other pesticide- contaminated clothing separate from general family laundry. If visible staining from diluted spray of pesticide residues remains after laundering, rewash using hot water, heavy-duty detergent, and a full water level. Then line dry.

Rust: Rust stains cannot be removed in normal laundering. Use of chlorine bleach makes them permanent. Rust removers that contain hydrofluoric acid are extremely toxic, can burn the skin, and can damage the finish on appliances. A solution of oxalic acid crystals in water will also remove rust stains, but it is often difficult to obtain the crystals.

Lemon juice and salt are more readily available and are helpful sometimes. Sprinkle the salt on the stain, squeeze lemon juice on it and spread the garment in the sun to dry. A word of caution: Lemon juice can bleach some colours and many washable garments are not manufactured to be colourfast to sunlight.

Scorch: Excess heat on cellulosic (cotton, linen, ramie, rayon), wool, or synthetic fibres can cause permanent damage. If fabric is thick and fuzzy, brush to remove charring. Rub liquid detergent into scorched area. Launder. If stain remains, bleach using, all-fabric bleach. Fabric will be permanently weakened in scorched area. Synthetic blends that are melted or glazed cannot be fully restored.

Smoke, soot: Shake off excess soot outdoors. Launder in washing machine using heavy-duty phosphate-based detergent or heavy-duty liquid as recommended by manufacturer, one cup of water conditioner, and 1/2 cup of all-fabric bleach. Use water temperature appropriate for fabric. Air dry. Inspect for smoke odour. Repeat as necessary. Three or four washes may be needed for cottons and cotton blends.

Urine: Rinse in cold water and launder. For stains on mattresses: (1) sponge with cloth using detergent solution, (2) rinse with cloth using vinegar solution, (3) let air dry, and (4) if odour remains, sprinkle with soda or calcium carbonate; wait one day, then vacuum.

Water Spots: Launder. Watermarks on drapes are water soluble and not removable by dry-cleaning solvents.

COMMON REMEDIES TO AVOID

Dishwasher detergent: Although sometimes suggested for food stains, these detergents are intended for use in closed dishwashers with very hot water. They are so highly alkaline they can irritate your skin if you use them in stain removal. They also may fade colours or damage wool, silk, or nylon fibres.

Hair spray on ball-point ink: Certain hair sprays are effective on ballpoint stains, but they may deposit a gummy residue and perfume that then have to be removed along with the ink. Hair spray also may affect colour in some fabrics. Alcohol is a hair spray ingredient that is useful for removal of the oily part of the ballpoint stain.

Ironing candle wax: Ironing candle wax between blotting paper will only drive the stain deeper into the fabric. This process is widely used, but it's not recommended because it will make any colour from the dye of the candle more permanently set and the wax more inaccessible for the detergent or solvent to reach to carry the stain away.

Milk on washable ink: This doesn't remove the ink and gives you an additional protein stain.

Salt to make dyes colourfast: Today's dyes cannot be increased in colourfastness by soaking in salt water. If bleeding of a particular dye in cotton, rayon, or ramie fabric is decreased with a salt-water soak, the effect will not be permanent. When the fabric is wet again, unless there is salt in the solution, the dye will be free to leave the fabric. Salt cannot affect colourfastness of synthetic fabrics or their blends because they are dyed with dyes that have chemical structures not affected by salt.

Shampoo: Clear gel-like shampoos are sometimes suggested for stain removal. While they are usually not harmful to fabrics and may work on light oil stains, laundry detergents are just as effective and less expensive to use. Additionally, colored, opaque; or milky-looking shampoos may contain ingredients that will stain fabrics or foam so much that they are difficult to rinse out.

White vinegar: Vinegar (acetic acid) may weaken cotton, rayon, acetate, triacetate, or silk fibres and may cause colour change. If used as a stain removal agent, test on a hidden seam allowance for colourfastness. Vinegar will not help remove or set creases in today's synthetic or permanent press fabrics, although this is a common belief.

How to Identify and Prevent Some Common Staining Problems

Greasy-looking fabric softener splotches: Use of fabric softener sheets in the dryer can deposit softener unevenly, causing greasy-looking splotchy stains on silk-like polyester and blends of cotton/ polyester broadcloth. This problem is especially noticeable on medium-colored fabrics such as khaki and medium blue. Avoid this problem and control static by using a fabric softener that is added to the final rinse.

Odd colored or rusty looking stains on collars, bed linen, bath linen and washcloths: These stains are often caused by the benzoil peroxide used in cosmetic products (including acne medicine). This chemical acts as a bleach, is very insoluble and hard to rinse off the body. It can permanently change colours of some dyes. The damage cannot be remedied, so it should be prevented. When products containing this chemical must be used, white collars and household textiles may be a good choice.

Stiff, coarse textures and/ or dull colours in freshly laundered fabrics: Nonphosphate granular detergents can combine with hard water to leave behind a residue that can cause fabrics to become stiff and feel harsh. Avoid the problem by using a phosphate-based detergent, a heavy-duty liquid detergent or a nonprecipitating water conditioner with the nonphosphate granular detergent. Soaking stiffened clothing in a solution of white vinegar and water (1 cup vinegar per gallon of water) may help restore them, however you should first test clothing for colourfastness to vinegar on a hidden seam allowance. Another way to restore this clothing is to treat as for yellow, grey, or general discoloration.

White powdery streaks on dark clothes: Powdery streaks on dark clothes are probably caused by undissolved detergent being incompletely rinsed out. Some nonphosphate detergents can deposit mineral hardness residue that shows as streaks. Avoid this problem by changing detergents or by adding detergent to the wash water first, then adding clothes and starting washer. Usually a repeat rinse and spin cycle with clear water will remove these streaks.

White streaks on blue jeans: White streaks on blue jeans are probably not caused by un- dissolved detergent. Blue jeans are often dyed with indigo dye, which is a fugitive dye that bleeds in a water solution. As the washer spins, the edges where the fabric is folded get more abrasion and rougher treatment, causing the colour to escape. Turning jeans wrong side out before laundering will reduce these white streaks and give more even fading. To avoid the natural fading that accompanies use of indigo, look for polyester/ cotton jeans that are labelled colourfast. They will retain their dark blue.

Yellowing, greying, or general discoloration: This condition occurs when insufficient detergent is sued for proper cleaning, wash water temperature is too low (especially for oil stains), too much detergent is used and insufficiently rinsed out, synthetics are washed with a light-duty detergent in cold water, or colour is transferred from other non-colourfast items in the wash. To refurbish clothing with this discoloration, wash in a permanent press cycle with hot wash water, a cool-down rinse, and a cup of water conditioner instead of detergent. If discoloration persists, repeat this procedure or wash again using the correct amount of detergent, an all- fabric bleach, or diluted liquid chlorine bleach if safe for fabric.

The treatment of last resort for white items is treatment with a commercial colour remover. This reducing bleach must be used very carefully, as it will easily fade colours in any fabric it touches.

If the yellow colour is on silk, wool, or spandex it may be a result of fibre alteration due to improper use of chlorine bleach and is not removable.

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 Tea, coffee, turmeric- bleach

Rust- hydrofluoric or oxalic acid

Grease- clax 200 and perc

Dirt/ dust- soap soln+ hot water

Chewing gum- steam

Oil- perc

Ink- methylated spirit

Lipstick- amyl acetate

Ball pen- ethyl alcohol

Dye stain- sodium hydrosulphate

HOTEL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS - 3rd year

HOTEL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1. Attractive appearance
2. Efficient plan
3. Location
4. Suitable material
5. Workmanship
6. Sound financing
7. Competent Management

1. Attractive appearance:
All over appearance of a Hotel is one of the very important consideration for a Hotel. It should be attractive and should reflect the architecture of that area and should also have character of the services being provided in that Hotel.

2. Efficient Plan:
The plan of the Hotel should be such that it should be functional and also appeal to the eye. All the services should be so designed that it meets various principles of lay-out and design.

3. Location:
The design of the Hotel will be guided by the geographical location of the Hotel e.g. if a Hotel is situated near the airport or railway station, the reception of the Hotel will be designed in such a way that it could handle large number of guests at one time because there is a possibility of guest checking in large groups and around the clock. Similarly, Hotel situated at hill stations, beaches and the Hotels located in heart of the cities and metros will be designed differently.

4. Suitable Material:
The Hotel should be designed in such a way that it should be able to use the material locally available which will be cost effective and efficient.

5. Workmanship:
While designing a Hotel one should consider the fact that what kind of workmanship is available and designer should take advantage of local expertise. This will not only make the hotel efficient but also will be economical.

6. Sound Financing:
One of the very important factors is finance in designing the Hotel. The availability of ready funds and management of finance is a crucial factor and it should be considered very carefully in Hotel Design.

7. Competent Management:
The design of a Hotel will depend upon the quality of management available to operate the establishment. If we have the quality management and manpower only then Hotel should be designed for sophisticated equipment and high tech gadgets.

These are some of the consideration which affect the design of hotel

parking design considerations

PARKING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Aesthetically pleasing and functional parking areas that fulfill the needs and requirements of the users should be the primary goal of the designer. A well-defined design process will greatly increase the probability of creating parking areas that satisfy this goal. The parking study may include the following items:
• Inventory of total parking spaces within a specific area
• Analysis of specific problems such as poor location or
deficiency of visitor or reserved parking areas and
employee parking
• Determination of parking duration and turnover rates
• Identifying access difficulties and poor pavement or
plant material condition
• Refuse collection or service access requirements
Siting
To most people, the ideal parking space is a few steps from their home or office door. The designer must look at a number of concerns to logically, efficiently, and economically site parking areas. Some of these include:
• Integrating adequate parking spaces with surrounding
facilities and existing circulation patterns
• Locating parking areas convenient to building
entrances
• Using topography and trees to mitigate negative visual
impacts
• Separating customer and employee parking areas
• Preserving sight lines to entries and significant
landscape and architectural features
• Minimizing negative impacts to the natural
environment such as unnecessarily removing mature
vegetation or degrading soil stability
• Preserving and integrating existing mature trees in
future parking


Orientation

To create safe and convenient parking areas, the orientation and configuration of the parking area must be considered early in the siting process.
• Align rows of parking spaces perpendicular to the facility
minimizing the number of pedestrian aisle crossings
• Provide access points and crosswalks from parking areas
to facility entries

User walking distance

Long term users, such as employees, will generally accept longer walking distances from parking areas to their workplace. Short term users such as customers or visitors expect shorter walking distances. Parking spaces for a specific facility should not be more than 75 meters from the facility entrance.

General planning and design

Some common parking area planning and design guidelines are:
• Use 36 square meters per vehicle (includes entry,
circulation, and parking spaces) as a typical planning and
cost estimating factor
• Minimize parking area entrance and exit curb cuts
• Locate separate visitor and reserved parking at the front
entry of the facility
• Eliminate dead-end parking areas
• Locate entrances and exits away from busy intersections
• Locate aisles and rows of parking parallel to the long
dimension of the site with parking on each side of an aisle
• Use rectangular parking areas to minimize land area
requirement
Grading and drainage
Parking areas must be properly sloped and drained to take care
of runoff. Apply the following minimums:
• Ideal slope for all parking area pavements is 2%
• Longitudinal pavement slope should be between 1%-5%
• Pavement cross slope should be between 1%-10%
• Storm water should be collected on the perimeter of
parking areas with a minimum of 2% slope along concrete
curb and gutter

Parking Area Types

Off-street
Off-street parking is the most common and accepted method of
satisfying facility parking needs. In many cases, these areas are
developed as one large mass parking area. The result is often an
installation dotted with huge expanses of asphalt with little
consideration of the negative visual impacts. When siting offstreet
parking areas, the designer should consider:
• Creating multiple smaller parking areas rather than one
large mass
• Integrating planted islands to increase aesthetics
• Minimize extensive grading operations by designing to the
topography
• Ensuring a distance of at least 15 meters is provided from
proposed parking area entrances and exits to intersections
• Minimizing the number of entrances and exits


On-street

• Permit only parallel parking
• Maintain a minimum distance of 15 meters from on-street
parking spaces to intersections and off-street parking area
entrances
• Break up long lines of vehicles with occasional planting
island projections if appropriate
• Ensure streets maintain required traffic-carrying
capacities and provide safe vehicular and pedestrian
passage

Geometry

Parking areas take on many configurations. Parking spaces may be parallel, perpendicular, or angled (30, 45, or 60 degree) to the driving lane, or aisle. A common factor among these various parking layouts is the size of the parking space. The minimum standard automobile parking space should be 6 meters long and
2.75 meters wide. Aisle widths vary based on the angle chosen and if they are one- or two-way. Two-way aisles should be a minimum of 7 meters wide.

The area required by each parking configuration will vary. As a general rule of thumb, the closer to perpendicular, the more vehicles can be parked per linear meter. Perpendicular, or 90 degree parking, accommodates 82 vehicles per 100 linear meters versus just less than 40 vehicles for 30 degree. A summary of the dimensions and attributes of the parking area configurations is provided in the Appendix. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the various parking configurations are addressed in the following paragraphs.

Parallel
For the designer, the parallel parking configuration can be used where suitable off-street parking cannot be accommodated or is not practical. For the driver, parallel parking requires experience, confidence, and patience.
Parking spaces should be a minimum of 7.5 meters long and at least 2.75 meters wide. On-street parallel parking spaces should be 3.35 meters wide.

Advantages
• Works well in extremely narrow, linear spaces
• Requires minimum pavement area
Disadvantages
• Difficult maneuvering for most drivers
• Less than ideal visibility of adjacent traffic
• Inefficient use of on-street space

Perpendicular
 Especially effective in low turnover rate or long term parking areas, the perpendicular, or 90 degree parking configuration is the most efficient and economical since it accommodates the most vehicles per linear meter. Standard dimensions for this configuration are:
Advantages
• Works well with either one- or two-way aisles
• Handles the most vehicles per square meter of pavement
• Handles most vehicles per linear meter
Disadvantages
• Requires widest area
• Difficult maneuvering for some drivers
• Two-way traffic can create some visibility problems

Angled - 60 Degree
This parking area configuration is ideal for a fast turnover rate or predominantly short term use. This is often offset by difficulties of inefficient circulation patterns and one-way aisles. Standard dimensions for this configuration are:
Advantages
• Easy maneuvering in and out of parking spaces
• Good visibility
• Lends itself to either one-or two-way aisles
• Most common short term parking configuration
Disadvantages
• Requires more pavement per vehicle than perpendicular
configuration
• Handles less vehicles per linear meter